SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1 – DEMOCRACY IN PORTUGAL: CONTEXT AND CRISIS 5
1.1 The making of Portuguese democracy 5
1.1.1 The collapse of Fascism 6
1.1.2 The Revolutionary period 8
1.1.3 European Integration and Parliamentary Democracy 15
1.1.4 Pre-crisis state of democracy 20
1.2 The Political Economy of Austerity 24
1.2.1 Periphery and Europe 24
1.2.2 Crisis and Austerity 28
1.3 Research hypotheses 31
1.3.1 Democracy as a historical and ideological product 32
1.3.2 Divergent discourses of democracy 35
1.3.3 Central hypothesis 36
CHAPTER 2 – “CRISIS” IN THE TRANSITION TO “POLITICAL” SCIENCE 37
2.1 The scientific concept of crisis 39
2.2 Dialectics and Critique 41
2.2.1 Socrates – Questioning Discourse 42
2.2.2 Plato – The idealistic solution 43
2.2.3 Hegel – Dialectics in Modernity 44
2.2.4 Marx – Crisis and Praxis 46
2.3 Crisis, Science and History 47
2.3.1 Historism and Science 48
2.3.2 From a history of scientific dualities to the current Crisis 51
2.4 Crisis, Science and the Political 54
2.4.1 The context of the Political 54
2.4.2 Crisis, the exception and the political 56
2.4.3 Marxism as a more than Political Science 59
2.4.4 Frankfurter School, Crisis and its rupture 62
2.5 Crisis, Critique and Political Science now 67
CHAPTER 3 – DEMOCRATIC THEORY: HISTORY AND CRISIS 71
3.1 Schools and Waves of Democracy 72
3.1.1 From the classic approaches to world war 73
3.1.2 Lessons from the “South” 77
3.1.3 The end of history 80
3.2 The crisis of Democracy and its alternatives 83
3.2.1 Participatory Democracy 85
3.2.2 Deliberative Democracy 87
3.2.3 Agonistic Democracy 90
3.2.4 Demodiversity 95
3.3 Crisis of the Alternatives and a restart of history 98
3.3.1 Capitalism and Democracy 101
3.3.1.1 Liberalism and the separation of the Political and the Economic Sphere 103
3.3.1.2 The making of the working class 106
3.3.1.3 Citizenship and representation 108
3.3.2 Socialism and Democracy 109
3.3.2.1 Dictatorship of the proletariat 110
3.3.2.2 Reformism 113
3.3.2.3 Imperialism, periphery and democracy 114
3.3.2.4 Discourses on Parliamentarianism 117
3.3.2.5 Popular Front and United Front 119
3.4 Inquiring about democracy in todays’ crisis 123
CHAPTER 4 – THE DEMOCRATIC DISCOURSE OF AUSTERITY 127
4.1 The context of Democratic Rhetoric: three ways to read the Crisis 128
4.1.1 The Crisis through a (Neo-)classic lens 129
4.1.2 The Crisis through a (Neo-)Keynesian lens 131
4.1.3 The Crisis through a Marxist lens 133
4.1.4 Democracy in times of Austerity 136
4.2 Elements of the Austerity-Hegemony 138
4.2.1 Neoliberalism 141
4.2.2 Depolitization 143
4.2.3 Culturalization 145
4.2.4 Formal Democracy 149
4.2.5 Substantive Legitimation 150
4.2.6 Exception as a Rule 152
4.2.6.1 There is no alternative 153
4.3 Critical Discourse Analysis of two policymakers 155
4.3.1 Democratic Austerity Discourse as Text 156
4.3.2 The Discursive practice in the Interview 158
4.3.3 Democratic Discourse as social practice: Explanation 160
4.3.3.1 Depolitization 162
4.3.3.2 Formal Legitimation 162
4.3.3.3 Austerity as an exception 163
4.4 An austerity-definition of democracy in crisis 164
CHAPTER 5 – THE ALTERNATIVE DEMOCRATIC DISCOURSES: WE WANT “REAL DEMOCRACY” 167
5.1 From Crisis to Protest: an overview 168
5.2 Questioning the protestors 173
5.2.1 The State of Democracy 175
5.2.2 Perception of Change 178
5.2.3 Redefining Democracy 181
5.2.4 Change over time 183
5.3 From Protest to Democratic Alternatives 185
5.3.1 The Acampadas 186
5.3.1.1 Real Democracy 188
5.3.1.2 Prefigurative democracy 190
5.3.2 The Trade Union Alternative 193
5.3.2.1 Trade Unions and Social Movements 198
5.3.2.2 The example of the Dockworkers 199
5.3.3 The Party Alternative 202
5.3.3.1 Parties and Portuguese Democracy 205
5.3.3.2 Parties and Social Movements 208
5.4 Back to Hegemony and socialist strategy 215
CHAPTER 6 – POST-POLITICAL ELEMENTS IN THE PORTUGUESE ANTI-AUSTERITY DISCOURSES 221
6.1 From Protest to post-Protest – Aesthetical practices 222
6.1.1 Post-protest-movements 223
6.1.2 Artivism and Aestetics 224
6.1.3 Exodus 227
6.1.4 A symptom 229
6.2 Post-Democracy as a discourse 230
6.2.1 Depolitical elements in the movements 231
6.2.1.1 Geração à Rasca 233
6.2.1.2 The Assembly movements 233
6.2.1.3 Movimento 12 de Março 237
6.2.1.4 Que se lixe a Troika 238
6.2.2 A critique of ideology 240
6.3 Conclusions 243
CHAPTER 7 – REINSTITUTIONALIZING DEMOCRACY THROUGH ELECTIONS 247
7.1 The Portuguese party landscape on the left during the crisis 248
7.1.1 The local elections of 2013 251
7.1.2 The European elections of 2014 253
7.1.3 The Legislative elections of 2015 257
7.1.4 Possible coalitions 260
7.2 Geringonça as an articulation on the left 264
7.3 Democratic Revolution or Thermidor? 267
7.4 Contemporary Socialist perspectives 271
CHAPTER 8 – FINAL REMARKS 275
8.1 Summary 275
8.2 Conclusions 289
8.3 Significance 292
8.4 Shortcomings 293
8.5 Future research 295
8.5.1 Gender, Race and Crisis 295
8.5.2 A new crisis: COVID-19 297
BIBLIOGRAPHY 301
ATTACHEMENTS 351
I. Interview with Mr. Abebe Selassie 351
II. Interview with Mrs. Maria Luís Albuquerque 358
III. Interview with Mr. José Soeiro 366
IV. Interview with Mr. Miguel Tiago 370
V. Interview with Mr. António Mariano 377
VI. Interview with Mr. Mário Nogueira 383
VII. Interview with Mrs. CD 394
VIII. Interview with Mrs. CVB 399
Well done. Nicely prepared.
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